Abdulkadir Kebire believed that only through education and unity can a people control their own destiny.
Is there a good prospect of education for the younger generation in
Introduction
In the
1940s education was in
Those who had
access to education during the Italian rule notably Woldab Woldemariam, Isaac Twelde Medhen and Abdulkadir Kebire and
others played an important role in
promoting education; they believed
that education was the cornerstone for the development of
The aim of
this paper is to provide background information on the development of education in
The 15th
anniversary of Independence Day is an appropriate time to ask if there exists
in today’s
Historical background
on Education in Eritrea
For centuries education in Eritrea was strongly based on religious schools (Stefanos, 1997) The religious education [1] run by the Coptic Church was for Christians and that run by the Mosque was for the Muslims. Since the introduction of Islamic religious education Tigrinya and Arabic languages have been the medium of teaching in schools. Perhaps the Turkish language was also used between 16th and 17th centuries as there was a dictionary which contains a glossary of eight Tigrinya -Turkish entries and Tigrinya- Arabic list of 380 words which was published during the Ottoman empire(Wende, 1994). The dictionary is available at the British Library.
From the middle
of the 19th century a
formal education system was
introduced in
The
introduction of formal education made possible
the emergence of Eritrean
scholars and the development of Tigrinya and Tigri publications in the late of the 19th
century and at the beginning of the 20th
century. The evidence of scholarly contribution from that period is
that
the Bible was
translated into Tigrinya. The group
that made the translation included the preacher Twelde Medhin and Kentiba
Belta. Giyorgis who was a scholar and
taught Tigrinya in
European missionaries had also greatly contributed to the
flourishing of Tigrinya and Tigri publications from the 1890s onwards which
included the first Tigrinya language newspaper in 1909 [3]. Other publications from the mid-1800s were mostly religious books
and dictionaries, For example The four Gospels: of our Lord and Saviour
Jesus Christ/translated into Tigre language by Abyssinian debtera Mattoes
and revised by the deceased Rev.Mr Isenberg (1806-1864), which was printed
at the Mission-Press , 1866. The book is available in libraries at the
By 1907 there were two Swedish missionary societies which established nine schools in eight centres, and the total number of students rose to 1,100 in the late 1920s [Gottesman, Les, 1998]. However, in 1932, most missionary schools which provided education for local people were closed down, but the Roman Catholic missionaries were encouraged to run the government schools which had come into existence with Italian colonization.
After the arrival
of Italian Fascism, by order
of the Italian government no Eritrean
was allowed to be promoted beyond the 5th
elementary class, and after 1936 no one was allowed to rise beyond the 3rd grade,
(Taye, 1991: 43),. and only 6 out of the 25 schools for Eritreans provided basic literacy and vocational
training up to 4th
grade apart from the
Scuola Vittoria Emmanunel in
As a consequence of
the Italian discriminatory policy,
thousands of Eritreans fled to
[http://eri24.com/Article_10028.htm], Belta Ephreme
who was the first Ethiopian representative in the UN (Pankhurst, 1953 ), and
Dawit Ogbazghi who was vice-governor of
Other
citizens after graduating from the fourth grade pursed their
studies by self-education. An
example of this was Abdulkadir Mohammed Saleh Kebire. Those who stayed in the
country after completing their 4th grade worked, during the Italian
rule as clerks. soldiers, telegraph
operators, typist, interpreters. One
such person was Woldeb Wolde Mariam[6] who served, 1935-1941, as the director of the former SEM school in
Renaissance of Education In
During the Italian rule the Eritrean people were not only deprived of the right to education beyond the 4th grade, but there was discrimination [7]. As a result of this there was disproportionately large number of pupils from the Italian settler populations. In the 1930s although the Eritrean population was about 405,000, there were only 1,530 Eritrean students in 19 elementary schools whereas the Italian population, which stood at 60,000 had 16 elementary and 10 secondary schools. In addition, there were three insitutions for higher education with a total of 3, 000 pupils with 150 teachers, and four Pre-University courses with 120 students.(
The segregation and restriction of
education beyond the 4th
grade came to an end with the defeat of the Italians in 1942. The British administration, in its early
years, acknowledged that education was
one of the greatest needs of the Eritrean people and that an educated stratum
could counter the influence of the Italian community. The British administration established a
Department of Education
on
Despite these effort, the Department of Education still faced problems
in building new schools and hiring teachers . For example a warehouse was
converted into a girls’ school, and only £7,000 annually was provided for
the education of European and Eritrean children, . [Pankhurst, 1953: p97]
To resolve these problems at one point the local communities were asked by the Director of Education if they would raise
the money needed to build a school with living accommodation
for the teachers. Due to the enthusiasm
for education, 23 poor villages provided
school buildings at their own expense (
Pankurst 1953). Taye (1991) in his book also mentions the devotion of the Eritrean people to
education when referring to Sylvia,
Pankurst
“
The British Director of Education,
Mr. Kynaston Snell, endeavoured with the modest means placed at his disposal to reverse
the Italian imperial policy of debarring
The
villagers not only funded the building
of new schools but also paid the salaries of the teachers. This was achieved through the formation of
school committees. The school
committees were also responsible for the routine monitoring of the schools and for the accommodation
of the teachers. Additionally there was also a commitment from individual citizens to
the expansion of education in the 1940s.
For example Abdulkader Kebire[9]
who was a businessman funded many charitable projects including one for
the establishment of a technical school in Mai Dshto in Akria,
Before, students after completing their elementary education had to move
to
Table 1 : The First Group of Middle School Candidates
|
Place of School |
Name of Some of the Student |
|
Akiria |
|
|
Hibret |
1.Wold Tseyone Kelati
2.Alganesh Kshisai |
|
Mendefera |
Amanuel Ade-michael |
|
Agordate |
Abubeker Haji |
|
Dekemhari |
Kinfe Ghebreil Gabir |
|
Segeneyti |
Okuba Ghebriel Desta |
|
Adi-Quala |
Berhe Mengistu |
|
Mai-Edaga |
Semainesh Abrha |
Source: A historical survey of state Education in
The following is from a 1947 news report on the first group of students who took an exam that year for admission to St. George Middle School, the first middle school established for Eritreans (Eritrean Weekly News, 24 July 1947, p. 1).
.
Akria Hbret Geshnashim Adi Tekelezan ‘Azien Meqerka Tse’azega Keren [i] Adi Wegri Adi Khwala Drko Ghinda’e Massawa Keren [ii] Aqurdet Ali Gidir Tessenei |
26 5 12 9 4 9 4 6 33 14 3 10 13 11 7 10 4 |
Source Raji, Ahmed - Aug 24, 2009
In the early 1950s the number of schools increased and there was a drastic increase in the student population. The students numbers increased from 2,045 to 13,240 between 1943 and 1951. (Taye, 1991)
Generally speaking , the British administration
played a significant role in introducing modern education and building schools
between 1942 and 1952, The British educational system also enhanced the educational awareness and
political consciousness of the Eritrean people which contributed
to the 30 year struggle for
independence.
Ethiopian Education Policy in
Prior
to 1962 the number of students and
teachers were higher in
Table
2.: Percentage increase of Enrollment,
Teachers and Schools (1956-57 to 1959-60)
|
|
1956-57 |
1957-58 |
1958-59 |
1959-60 |
|
Enrollment Empire total 12 Provinces Addis Abeba |
24.43 23.30 26.38 27.16 |
12.98 14.87 14.97 4.45 |
5.48 4.66 0.59 15.12 |
7.94 3.31 2.57 23.27 |
|
Teachers Empire total 12 Provinces Addis Abeba |
15.33 12.53 12.55 27.31 |
11.14 13.89 12.76
3.46 |
13.31
6.81 28.41 18.97 |
2.35 4.14 3.54 4.69 |
|
Schools Empire total 12 Province Addis Abeba |
4.99 3.11 8.57 10.15 |
2.78 6.49 10.52 10.63 |
1.59 4.57 9.52 21.42 |
0.94
.68 4.34 4.37 |
Source: A historical survey of state Education in
The Ethiopian
government in order to restrict
the progressive education system in
“A greater part of the books, together with other documents,
were burned in 1963 in the industrial
oven of the Matches Factory in
Furthermore the Ethiopian government gradually introduced a calibration of
examination scores for entrance to the university according to the province of origin, in order
to limit places in higher education for
Eritrean students. Based on this
policy, students from provinces with poor educational endowment needed
only to achieve low marks to gain
entrance to the university compared to those with better schools in
Table 3.
|
Provinces |
Schools |
Students |
Eth.Tech |
Fore.Tech |
|
Shoa |
105 |
35, 534 |
748 |
57 |
|
Gojjam |
36 |
9, 527 |
242 |
17 |
|
Wollega |
45 |
12,651 |
253 |
10 |
|
Arussi |
34 |
6,839 |
237 |
15 |
|
Bale |
12 |
2,594 |
85 |
6 |
|
Harar |
36 |
12, 535 |
266 |
43 |
|
Sidamo |
43 |
12,571 |
278 |
12 |
|
Bigemidir &Semien |
52 |
10,340 |
286 |
23 |
|
|
9 |
8,795 |
192 |
18 |
|
Wollo |
33 |
10, 876 |
337 |
29 |
|
Gemu-Gofa |
17 |
3, 163 |
143 |
7 |
|
Illubabor |
36 |
5,745 |
165 |
8 |
|
Kaffa |
13 |
5, 800 |
173 |
14 |
|
|
190 |
40,565 |
830 |
70 |
|
Addis Abeba |
40 |
29,908 |
827 |
241 |
Source: A historical survey of state Education in
The standard of education in
Erlich (1983) who was lecturer at the
Table 4
|
Provinces |
1968and 1969 E.S.L.C.E Passes |
Rank order of passes |
|
Arussi Bale Begemeder & Semen Gomu Gofa Gojjam Hararhe Illubabor Kaffa Shoa Addis Abeba Sidamo Wellega Wollo |
7 1 9 118 2 5 31 - 3 74 431 7 30 7 18 |
8 13 7 2 5 11 4 14 12 1 9.5 5 9.5 6 |
Source: A historical survey of state Education in
The strong enrollment of Eritreans for
higher education was not limited to
Once
the students had gained qualifications in
However, with the
beginning of the
independence struggle in 1961 and with the
state of emergency declared in
1970 Eritrean students,
teachers and other educated classes became a
target of the Ethiopian government. There
was a great
deal of violation of academic freedom at
the
After
1980 the number of schools and teachers began to increase but
it had a much larger presence of
Ethiopians teachers. For example, there were more than 2, 000
non-Eritrean teachers in
Overview of the Education System in the Liberated Areas
during the Armed Struggle
From 1975, the ELF and EPLF
focused on education as a way
to influence the young generation and
not primarily to deliver education
for the benefit of society . The ELF opened
school in the liberated area and in Sudan ; there were
also some scholarships provided
for Eritrean students through Sabe and ELF
Those teachers
who joined to the EPLF in 1975 greatly contributed to laying the
foundation for the establishment of
the revolutionary school in
Some of the teachers and fighters with good educational background were also killed by the EPLF because they were always suspected of being supporters or sympathizers of Menkae[14]
According to Mengisteab (50, 2005) that Teklay Aden, an EPLF security chief who defected to the Ethiopian regime in 1981,
revealed that three thousand fighters were physically liquidated by the Front between the start of the internal power struggle(1973) and the time of his defection(1980). Mengisteab added that one source
said that the number of fighters physically eliminated by the Front between 1973 and the liberation of Eritrea in 1991, could range between three thousand and five thousand,
if those fighters who disappeared under mysterious circumstances are included.
However, Solomon Woldemariam, who was in the EPLF leadership from 1971-1977, suggested that the number was much larger.
Solomon added that around one thousand fighters who participated in the Menka movement were rehabilitated after undergoing serious political
indoctrination and self-criticism( Mengiseab, 49: 2005)
Furthermore Sherman(64) mentioned that in 1976 perhaps as many as 200 young EPLF intellectuals were arrested.
Many were executed for “radicalism” for following an alleged Maoist line.
This was when Goitom Berhe and his groups tried to form an underground movement
called 'the Eritrean Revolutionary Party' in 1975/1976.
During this period the party translated a number of Marxist works to Tigrigna
(eg Dialectical Materialism, Four Essays of Philosophy, About the Proletariat Party) .
All the literature was then collected and burnt. The suspected ring-leaders of the anti-Essayas movement of
progressives were arrested and, later executed.
Sometimes educated fighters
were suspected spying for the CIA. For example in 1975 the rumour deliberately spread that there were up to one hundred and fifty CIA spies within the Front whom the challengers handled.
and many young students were accused as CIA spies and they were executed as there was any news about them.
Under this pretext some influential educated fighters were deprived of
their freedom of expression. Those who were arrested and executed are
listed in the table below.
Table 5
|
Group 1 Yohannes Sebhatu; |
Group 2: 1976 |
Group 3.:1978 Dr Eyob Ghebre-leul educated
in the |
| Dr Russom; |
|
|
| |
|
|
| |
Teclai Ghebre-Kristos |
|
| |
|
|
| |
Haile Yohannesom |
|
| |
|
|
| |
Bereket Haile |
|
| |
|
|
| |
|
|
Educated fighters who were assigned to different departments within the Front between 1973 and 1981, after completing their military training were under close surveillance Some who were assigned to the front line were given harsh treatment by their military commanders.
Moreover, it was a common to send potentially troublesome(educated fighters) fighters to the frontlines where pitched battles with the Ethiopian army were anticipated so that they would perish by Ethiopian bullets
After 1982 the treatment of educated fighters within the Front had improved
to some extent due to the following factors:
1.The 'Eritrea People's Revolutionary Party', which was formed secretly by
Isays and his clique in 1975, became stronger from the early 1980s than
in the 1970s
2.Most educated fighters who joined the Front in the 1970s, were killed
either in the front line or in the EPLF secret prisons
3.The establishment of the Research and Information Centre of Eritrea (RICE)
in 1979 and the Eritrea Medical Association (EMA) etc
4.The establishment of the Eritrean National Student Association and other developments
concerning the EPLF foreign policy in Europe and North America
As a result of the above factors, the attitude of the Front toward the educated fighters had began partially improved from the early 1980s. Despite this, the most educated fighters were not member of the secret party ('Eritrean People's Revolutionary Party').
Then in the early 1970s there were the mysterious deaths of Dr. Fetsum, who was a member of ELF, and of others. Furthermore in 1977 some of the newly recruited fighters (Falul ) were also killed by the ELF leaders during the power struggle between Herui T. Bairu and other leaders such as Abedela Idris 1977. This crime was committed by Abedela Idris who was a member of the ELF Iraqi Baath Party.
.
The EPLF and ELF leaders also committed the crime of burning books as the Ethiopian army had done.
For example in 1976 all the literature which
was translated
from Marxist works in to Tigrigna by Goitom Berhe (bitsay), was burnt [16], by the order of EPLF leaders.
Similar
The Birth & Demise of the
Brief historical background
The Camboni Sisters founded the
The
The university showed good progress in
the enrolment of students in the late 1960s which exceeded 1,500. The number of students in 1964 had been only
486.
Development of the University during the Dergue 1974-1991
As a result of the Ethiopian Dergue
government's announcement of the Zemetcha in 1974 (Campaign for National
Development through Cooperation), the number of Eritrean students at Asmara
University and the University of Addis Ababa declined as they boycotted
Zemetcha. Many of them joined the
liberation fronts. Most
The intensified of fighting in the
suburbs of the capital city,
In the late
1980s the advancement of EPLF to liberate the whole country became imminent,
and the
Status of the
After
the liberation of Eritrea, despite the scarcity of resources and the shortage
of academic staff, the
University of Asmara was
re-established and resumed
its academic work on October 10, 1991 with a few hundred students and
five faculties to mention a few, faculty of natural science, social
science, . The president of the
In 1992 the university reviewed its academic programme and the curriculum, and introduced a Student National Service Programme,[2004] whereby students spent one academic year before graduation providing services to the local community .
In order to achieve its mission and play a significant role
in the rehabilitation and enhancement of
the University , the university set up a
10-year strategic plan in 1995, which aimed to rebuild the
On
the other hand as can
be seen from the table below,
from the academic year 1992/1993 until the academic year 2002/2003, the number
of students enrolled in day classes grew despite the outbreak of the war
between
It is
surprising to see, however, the decline
in the number of students enrolled in the evening programme from the academic
year 1991/92 to 1998/99 , the
explanation for this, according to
Leonida, is that the course was removed from the programme .
He added that, the reason for the
cancellation was the shortage of qualified staff, and inadequate teaching
facilities. Although Leonida(2004), did not address the cause of the sharp decline of the
students from 1259 in the academic year 1991/92 to 130 in the 1998/99 academic
years, the possible reason for this could be the government’s deliberate
dispersal in 1994 of most ex-fighters who had been attending the
evening class. In other words, most ex-fighters were withdrawn from the
evening programme. The termination of the evening program was an early crack
down of formally educated individuals in the government institutions.
The University
was excelling towards a strong institution teaching and research after 1996
when many of the staff who went for
postgraduate studies had returned to the country. As a result of this,
1999 210 faculty members taught at the
university; 90 held PhDs. Of these 90, only 38 (42%) were Eritreans whereas in 1991, only 8 (12.9%) of 62 faculty
members held doctorates, and in 1999,
A second
reason was the mobilization for war during the border conflict in 1998 and the
intensification of Warsay-yekalo campaign, which was described
as slavery by Adhanom Gebremariam, [18]
in 2002, and finally since 2001 arbitrary arrest, and flight from the country.
Table: Student enrollment
|
Enrollment of students |
||
|
Academic Year |
Day |
Evening |
|
1991/92 1992/93 1993/94 1994/96 1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 1990/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 |
1683 2141 2268 2611 2835 2948 3956 4135 4628 5506 5934 |
1259 1192 881 427 324 188 130 - - - - |
Source (2004)Student Selection and Retention at the University of Asmara, Eritrea
The political situations in the country
affected the phase of the
After the
The
intention behind the programme was to divert the
Since
then and even more after the crackdown on the reformist movement, the
government has been apprehensive of
the
Since the opening of this school, as soon as students complete their 11th grade class they are transferred to the Sawa high school. There,after completing their 12th grade those who pass the examination are transferred to the new technical college in Mai Nefi whereas those who fail are immediately transferred to the Army and spend the most productive years of their life in uncertainty.
The Mai Nefi college was constructed with collaboration between the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Defense. Colonel Ezira who was a former administrator of Sawa administered this college.
Because of this military administration students at Mai Nefi Technical Institute are not allowed to choose what subject they study.
The institute in Mai Nefi didn't have a standard library, laboratory and qualified staff , because it was opened without proper planning. Zega (2004)documented it as follows.
"......Prefabricated Houses were imported from abroad, about 400 Indian teachers were recruited and all the students who did their last year of high school in Sawa were all put in the yet unfinished new “institute.”
In
2003 the first batch of students who
completed their 12th grade at the
Majority of the departments in the
By contrast the government has opened
a college of nursing and a college of
medicine in
Why
is the government not interested in the development of
By way of explanation for
the above, brief mention should be made of the Eritrean government’s attitude towards
At that time, the
academic staff proposed to reform a university faculty association which
they had established during the Dergue period.
Their proposal was rejected and 40 lecturers were dismissed. Among these
were:
Dr Tesfay who was a lecturer in the
Department of Accounting who had challenged Andebrhane, ex-president of the
university in the meeting.
Dr. Semera a lecturer in the
Department of Physics
Mr. Iyob a
lecturer in the Department of
Biology who had a good reputation among the students for his teaching skills.
Dr Nugusse a lecturer in the Department
of Economics
The repression of academic staff did
not cease even after Andebrhane, who had
been the president between 1991 and 1993, left.
In fact it got much worse. During Dr
Woldab’s tenure as president of the
Dr Woldab was
responsible for the death of some academic staff. For example Dr Feshay who was
outspoken and very critical of the government, Dr Haile G/Kidane, Dr Alexander
Naty, two students, namely Yirga Yosef and Yemane Tekee, who died in the
detention camp at Wia in 2000. Eritrean
youths also died in the concentration camps of Sawa, Wia, Adi Abioto,
Dankalian,
After committing all the above crimes, Dr. Woldab had officially resigned from his post and left the country in 2005, since then the university doesn't have an official designated president. This ad by acting ministers
To conclude, the Eritrean government has committed crimes against
the country’s youth by:
1. Introducing the Wefri-Warsai Yike'Alo campaign;
2. Restricting
exit visas to students who wanted to study abroad and
3. Refusal to demobilize the army,
It has pursued these
policies to prolong its autocratic rule.
The
Notes
1.
In Orthodox church education boys (never girls) learned the Psalms of
David and other religious texs in Geeze by rota. Those who elected to
priesthood continued through a demanding curriculum that could take more than twenty
years to complete. A lay order of the church the Debtera learned to write as
well as read hence constituted the only literate group.
In Islamic education, the purpose of education was to teach Muslim children about the cultural heritage and brotherhood of Islam. Similar to church schools, the methods of learning were primarily based on listening ,reading oral recitation and memorization. (source Rena, Ravinder 2003)
2.This school
had enrolled 500-day students and additional 158 boarding students of which
80 were boys and 78 of them were girls. Some of the subjects taught were languages,
woodwork, metalwork, tailoring, agriculture and printing. After
4.
General Aman Andom (1924-74) Aman was born in
5 Sheikh Ibrahim Mukhtar established the largest Islamic library in the country and donating more than 3,000 books from his own personal collection.
6. Ato Woldab Wolde Mariam published the first Tigrnya Grammer, Fidel Tiginya in 1932 and Arki Temharey (Students Friend) in 1942
7. 1909 the first colonial educational
policy was declared, based on separate schools for Italians and Eritreans.
Schooling was compulsory for Italians aged seven to sixteen, and the curriculum
followed the curriculum of the school in
8. Mr Isaac had attended the Swedish Mission school in Eritrea and then studied for the two years at the American University in Beirut, and became a teacher for a number of years until the Italian closed the mission. (Gottesman, 1998, Tay 1991). When a new education programme was introduced by the Department of Education , Mr. Issac Twelde Medhin occupied in writing text-books, for example [Mebata’ta quisri ba--tegrena . Arithemetic foe beginners, 1943
9. Sheikh Abdulkader Kebire(1902 - 1949 ) who became a controversy by calling for the education of women, something, which was a taboo in those days. He believed that only by education and unity can a people be masters of their own destiny. These messages were his vehicle to the world of politics
11. Following annexation in 1962, the policies of “ Ethiopianization” and Amharization” intensified; In 1963 the Publications Committee was abolished and Arabic and Tiginya textbooks were burned
12.
....States on the Development of
Education. Among other things, the conference highlighted
(Source
http://countrystudies.us/ethiopia/70.htm Education During Imperial Rule)
13. Dr Petros Habtemichael was an economist in 1975. Dr Petros taught extension courses in the evening, and some of his students were Ethiopian military officers, who objected to his use of Eritrean rather than Ethiopian examples in his coursework, and to the low grades that some of them were given. It is believed that officers caused Dr. Petros to be detained and executed. (Source Africa Watch, 1993)
14. in 1973 a group of leftist Marxist member of the Eritrea People Liberation Front fighters began challenging the Front in general, and Isayas Afewerki in particular, for the lack of democracy within the Front. Names of leaders of the ‘Menka’e’ movement who were executed are listed in grour 3 in the table 5. (www.eri24.com/Article_10001.htm ) ]
15. Goitom and his groups tried to form an underground movement called 'the Eritrean Revolutionary Party' in 1975/1976. The suspected ring-leaders of the anti-Essayas movement of progressives were arrested and, later butchered.
16. 'the Eritrean Revolutionary Party' translated a number of Marxist works to Tigrigna (eg Dialectical Materialism, Four Essays of Philosophy, About the Proletariat Party) . All the literature was then collected and burnt
17.....The curriculum section of the ELF,
on their own initiative without consulting the executive committee…, Ibrahim
Mohammed Ali, wrote in Tigre under the presupposition that people had to learn
in Tigre. They prepared educational books.These people (Teachers) were new
comers to the organization. Because they agreed among themselves that the
official languages of
18. Warsai-Yikalo. After the
19..Sawa is the site of a massive military training camp where every Eritrean aged between 18-40 has to go as part of their compulsory military service.
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